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Session 19: Apprenticeship and Learning in Religious Communities
of Practice: Case Studies from Burma, Zangskar and Japan (FRIDAY 8:30am - 10:30am)
Organizer and Chair: Rosemarie Bernard, Harvard University
Discussant: Stanley J. Tambiah, Harvard University
Three case studies on Burmese Theravada Buddhists, Indian (Zangskari) Mahayana Buddhists, and
Japanese Shinto priests, consider how religious practitioners and ritual officiants are apprenticed in their
religious communities. Drawing inspiration from practice theory and anthropological studies of
apprenticeship, the case studies emphasize the process of learning rather than education or didactic
practices. Participation in religious communities or in ritual practice in some way calls for the
transformation of the "religious apprentice." Marginal observation, training by direct participation in social
groups and their practices, and other ways of learning are investigated as the methods through which
orientations to the world are internalized and a poetics of priestly identity cultivated by apprentices. We
consider the process of "situated learning" (Lave and Wenger, 1991) and the incumbent constitution of
political, spiritual, and aesthetic identities among religious communities and ritual officiants. The
academic training of nuns and priests does not necessarily translate directly into "practical religious
knowledge," so that apprentices not only learn, but in many cases must also unlearn, forms of
knowledge and practice. Ritual knowledge, performance and rehearsal are all arenas in which
institutional power and religious/ritual authority are contested and celebrated, on multiple registers that
may have contradictory implications for the ways in which institutions and orientations to the world are
reconstituted over time.
Lay Participation and Apprenticeship in Burmese Buddhism
Ingrid Jordt, Harvard University
In the literature on apprenticeship, there is often the distinction drawn between practical learning on the
one hand, which includes such notions as co-participation or participation frameworks, and schematized
learning or structured acquisition on the other. Both are necessary for the reproduction of the cultural life
world. In the Burmese Buddhist learning tradition one encounters a similar split between practical and
scriptural learning as described by the terms patipatti and pariyatti, respectively. In the context of a more
than half-century-long Burmese Buddhist revitalization movement, numbers of lay people have come to
participate in the most esoteric aspects of the production of the Buddha world. Because of the
conditions that have given rise to the importance of the participation of lay people in the reproduction of
the Buddha world, the practical modalities of learning have come to the fore. This paper presents an
ethnographic account of two modalities of practical learning in the apprenticeship of lay people into the
Burmese Buddha world, and thereby contributes to our understanding of how apprenticeship can be
involved in the reproduction of cultural life worlds in general.
Session 76: ROUNDTABLE: Can Federalism Work in Burma?
(Sponsored by the Burma Studies Group) (FRIDAY 1:00pm - 3:00pm)
Organizer and Chair: Maureen Aung-Thwin, Soros Foundation
Discussants: F. K. Lehman, University of Illinois; Naw May Oo, Karen Student Network Group; Mya
Maung, Boston College; Chao Tzang Yawnghwe, University of British Columbia; Pon Nya, Monland
Restoration Council; Vum Son, Engineer
January 1999 marks the fifth anniversary of the Karen ethnic rebellion, which still persists today though
in a much diminished form. The challenge to make Burma into a fair and equitable society for all of its
citizens remains the biggest obstacle to genuine national reconciliation.
Burma’s social, economic, and political crisis will not be resolved in the long run without the active and
informed participation of its diverse peoples. Absent consent of the ruled, especially non-Burmans, any
government in Burma will likely face insurmountable difficulties in marshaling the popular support and
financial resources required to address the country’s enormous problems.
There is no doubt that a competent and honest administration accountable to Burma’s populace could
more productively and rationally develop the country’s immense natural and human resources. A more
open society with genuine elections is not the only requisite. The political impasse that has led to a half
century of insurgency along Burma’s borderlands must also be addressed as a threshold to lasting
progress. Even a democratically-elected government in Burma will need to seek a broad consensus
among ethnic minority peoples to realize the peace that is a requisite for sustainable democratic
development.
The ceasefires that are in force today in much of the former battlegrounds are fragile, for the major issue
that fueled Burma’s civil wars remains basically unresolved: how to share the political, economic, and
cultural "pie" of Burma?
(FRIDAY 10:45am - 12:45pm)
Organizer: Magnus Fiskesjo, University of Chicago
Chair: Ann Maxwell Hill, Dickinson College
Discussant: Deborah Ellen Tooker, Le Moyne College
The focus of this panel is the slavery and bondage institutions of the highland peoples of Southwestern
China and Southeast Asia. Such institutions are better known from the context of the dominating state
societies of the region, and the presence of various forms of bondage in many highland societies is a
subject rarely touched upon today, despite the attention from Western anti-slavery campaigns earlier in
this century.
While the peripheral societies were often the passive sources of slaves captured by outsiders, some
historically raided the lowlands for slaves they kept themselves—for example, the Yi in Southwest China,
and the Wa of the Burma-China frontier; others maintained slaves of local origin. The study of such
social institutions in their various forms and complexities in their historical context has important
implications for how we understand historical process, social stratification and ideology in non-state
societies, as well as the construction of identities and the nature of relations with surrounding states.
What were the specific forms of slavery and bondage amongst the supposedly predominantly egalitarian
or anti-hierarchical uplanders? Under what circumstances does it become possible for the tables to turn
with the raiding, capturing or trading of and in people, and can we identify and explain cycles or other
variations? Also, how do these institutions and ideologies of slavery reflect on constructs of identity, if
slaves are the ultimate "other" and stand at the opposite end of the continuum from "us"? These are
some of the questions we want to address.
Captives, Victims, "Slaves": War, Sacrifice and Slave Trade in the Wa Context
Magnus Fiskesjo, University of Chicago
This paper presents an analysis of the forms of slavery and their place in the Wa society of the first half
of this century, before the Chinese pacification in the 1950s. The Wa people of the Yunnan-Burma
frontier were widely feared as fiercely independent warriors, and the threat of headhunting raids served as
a deterrent to all outsiders, as well as to internal enemies within the strife-torn Wa lands. Such acts of
war were often specifically targeted, in retaliation for an offense given against a community, but the
declared aim was always to produce at least one acceptable sacrificial victim. The raids also, however,
often yielded live victims who were captured and kept or adopted much like the other major category of
people in bondage: children sold to meet debts, etc. Like those, the war captives either might emerge,
eventually, as full members of Wa society, or, at the other extreme, they might be traded for use in
sacrifice. Chinese Marxist attempts to pinpoint the level of advancement of Wa society on an
Engels-Morganian scale stalled on the issue of presence or absence of "slavery" in Wa society, because
the search was for stable social strata where they did not exist—and Wa society was studied in
isolation. The various forms of bondage in pre-reform Wa society should instead be understood within the
larger context of the trading, raiding and sacrifice of people taking place within the framework of a
cosmology that cast the Wa predatory periphery as a center of attraction.
Session 37: Who Rules? Multiple Sovereignty in Mainland Southeast
Asia (FRIDAY 8:30am - 10:30am)
Organizer and Chair: Nicola Tannenbaum, Lehigh University
Discussants: John K. Whitmore, University of Michigan; David B. Small, Lehigh University
Lords of the Sunset and the Ruler on Whose Empire the Sun Never Set: Shan States and British Rule
Nicola Tannenbaum, Lehigh University
As the British extended their territorial control over upper Burma in the 1880s, they confronted a political
situation in disarray, at least from their perspective. A number of Shan States had stopped paying tribute
to Burma and some of these formed the Limbin Confederation to place the Limbin Prince on the
Burmese throne. Other states went their own ways; while still other states were paying tribute to China
or Siam and relying on them for protection from the British and the French.
In this paper, I explore the plane of relationships between the Shan States and the British colonial
empire. To do this, I first explore the tributary relationships Shan States had with each other and with the
Burmese throne and the political and ritual organization that framed these relationships. Next I examine
British understandings of sovereignty and rule to comprehend their perception of the political situation in
the Shan hills as chaotic. With this as background, I go on to explore the structure of conjunction of
Shan perceptions of politics and polity with those of the British and the consequences this had for Shan
political organization.
Roundtable: Engaging Burma, Part Two
(Sponsored by the Burma Studies Group) (see session 69)
Organizer and Chair: Maureen Aung-Thwin, Soros Foundation
Discussants: David I. Steinberg, Asia Foundation; Mark Mason, Yale University; Asda
Jayanama, Mission of Thailand to the U.N.; Ronald Finley, Independent Scholar; Maureen
Aung-Thwin, Soros Foundation
Burma has shed its shell forever. Almost a decade after nationwide demonstrations rocked the
country, the ruling State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) has temporarily quelled the
ethnic insurgencies, declared the economy open, invited tourism and foreign investment, and in the
summer of 1996, joined the prestigious regional grouping, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN). Whether the changes are structural or cosmetic, whether the SLORC will
endure for another ten years or civilian rule returns, Burma can no longer live in isolation. Since 1988
Burma has been scrutinized as never before in her recent history, as a growing number of academics,
journalists, activists, and special interest groups around the globe debate how best to bring about an
enduring peace and lasting economic and political reform.
This roundtable will not dwell on what was or should have been, but rather what is and might be. A
diverse group of veteran and newer Burma watchers reflecting a range of disciplines and views will
offer insights and we hope, instigate a lively discussion with an audience that will undoubtedly include
representatives from the United States government, international financial institutions and possibly
even the Embassy of Myanmar.
Session 14: Socially Engaged Buddhism in Southeast Asian Contexts
Organizer and Chair: Susan Darlington, Hampshire College
Discussant: Donald K. Swearer, Swarthmore College
Faced with growing consumerism, secularization, environmental degradation and social problems,
new and modern forms of Buddhist practice and belief continue to emerge in a variety of Southeast
Asian contexts, including diaspora settings. Buddhists in Southeast Asia and elsewhere increasingly
view social and political activism as appropriate practice aimed at ameliorating the conditions that
produce suffering. Through anthropological and historical studies of Buddhists in Southeast Asia and
among Southeast Asian communities living in the United States, panel contributors explore social,
political, economic and religious factors that motivate or discourage socially engaged Buddhist
activism or offer alternative modes of modern Buddhist practice. The panel explores religious and
social change and its effects on individual activists and larger communities. The papers consider both
local monks and charismatic Buddhist leaders (lay and religious) as they respond to social crises in
their communities. Darlington explores networking among Thai conservationist monks in the face of
intense public scrutiny. Smith-Hefner considers forms of Buddhist practice among Khmer
communities in the U.S. where, despite pronounced social needs, many Cambodians opt for more
traditional forms of practice, including the support of religious institutions in their place of origin.
Schober contextualizes the socially engaged Buddhist visions of Aung San Suu Kyi, the Burmese
Nobel Laureate and charismatic resistance leader. Queen examines the personal histories of three
charismatic socially engaged Buddhist leaders. While focusing on specific cases, each presentation
addresses comparative issues in the study of modern Buddhist forms in Southeast Asia and beyond
and opens broader discussion.
Contextualizing Aung San Suu Kyi’s Socially Engaged Buddhism
Juliane Schober, Arizona State University
In her recently published writings (i.e., a weekly column in a major Japanese daily newspaper and a
new book, entitled "Voice of Hope"), the Burmese opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize
Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi speaks to the role of socially engaged Buddhism in her vision of a
politically plural and participatory Burmese nation state. Beyond her political appeal, her supporters
among Burmese include Buddhist monks within Burma and abroad. Yet, her charismatic, religious
appeal as a modern world renouncer akin to Mahatma Gandhi is especially strong among largely
Western converts to Buddhism. This paper presents Aung San Suu Kyi’s views on modern Buddhist
ethics, universal human rights, economic development, and political participation within an ethnically
and religiously diverse nation state. It further contextualizes her vision of socially engaged Buddhism
with: (1) the history of socially engaged action within more traditional Burmese forms; and (2) within
the broader range of socially engaged Buddhist activism as a form of modern Buddhism in Southeast
Asia.
Session 166: Across the Divide: Identity and State in the Uplands of Southwest China and Southeast Asia
, Part Two: Boundaries,
Subjects/Citizens and Identity (see session 147)
Organizer: Ann Maxwell Hill, Dickinson College
Chair: Nicola Tannenbaum, Lehigh University
Discussant: Jonathan N. Lipman, Mount Holyoke College
The discussion in Part Two of this back-to-back panel centers directly on the implications of state
policies and state representations of minorities for identity formation. They all ask the question: how
has participation in states, over time and in changing polities, affected constructions of the kind of
people that "we" are, in terms of our culture, our livelihood, and our political/ethnic affiliations? The
answers are specific historical constructions of ethnic identity that demonstrate the mutability of
identity. But the answers, in the larger comparative frame set out in Part One (session 147), also
highlight contrasts between the Chinese and Thai polities, at the same time as demonstrating
commonalities: the power of origin myths as paradigms for identity, the potential of states to reify or
"canonize" particular ethnic traditions, and the changes wrought by the rise of nation-states. All
presenters are anthropologists engaged in on-going fieldwork in China and Thailand. The discussant,
Jonathan Lipman, a historian specializing in Muslims in China, is familiar with issues relating to
nationalism, an important factor in our discussion of states and ethnic identity formation.
Thai Yai, Shan, and Tai Long: Political Identity Across State Boundaries
Nicola Tannenbaum, Lehigh University
While "Thai Yai," "Shan," and "Tai Long" ostensibly refer to the same group of people, each term
reflects a different political identity. Thai Yai and Shan are terms outsiders use while Tai Long is how
they refer to themselves. Thai Yai is the Thai term while Shan is used in Burma and Western
academic writing. In this paper, I examine the political religious structures of Shan communities and
groups of communities in the recent past and go on to explore how these structures have changed
through interaction with the British colonial state, the current Burmese regime, and the modern Thai
state. I then discuss the ways these different regimes have affected how Shan see themselves as
political actors and as a kind of "people" in these multi-ethnic states.
Cartography and Conquest: Mapping the Frontier in Late Imperial China, 1600–1900
Mapping an Imperial Frontier into "National Territory": How Qing Officials Demarcated
the Yunnan-Burma Frontier and Helped Produce a Small Corner of China
C. Patterson Giersch, Yale University
It has become common to note that the Qing dynasty’s conquests provided the territorial basis for
modern China. This seemingly simple statement conceals the complex processes that produced a
sovereign modern state from a pre-modern empire. Integral to this transformation, for instance, were
changes in how territorial authority—especially on the frontier—was conceived and represented.
This paper links changing Qing dynasty (1644–1911) representations of the boundary to the creation
of the modern Chinese national state by studying the demarcation and mapping of the Yunnan
frontier during the 1890s.
First, the paper presents evidence which suggests that early and mid-Qing officials conceived of the
Yunnan frontier as divided from foreign domains by a zone, not a line. These lands in-between
harbored the indigenous ruler (tusi) domains, places ideally under Qing jurisdiction but still not
considered equal to the empire’s "internal lands." Second, it examines how British and Qing
representatives negotiated, demarcated, and mapped a linear border between most of upper Burma
and southwest Yunnan in the 1890s. This project changed how peripheral Yunnan was represented
and conceived. Finally, the paper suggests that this new representation of the Yunnan frontier,
inscribed on maps, influenced post-imperial Chinese statesmen as well as foreign powers to consider
the erstwhile frontier "zone" as a full-fledged part of modern China.
Session 147: Across the Divide: Identity and State in the Uplands of Southwest China and Southeast Asia, Part One: the Comparative Frame (see
session 166)
The Nuosu are not Kachin: Re-configuring Upland-Lowland Relations
Ann Maxwell Hill, Dickinson College
Among Southeast Asianists, Leach’s anthropological classic, Political Systems of Highland
Burma, has long been a wellspring of analytical models for ethnic identity and inter-ethnic relations
among groups in the Sino-Southeast Asian borderlands. This paper examines how well, or whether,
his specific insights into relations between upland groups and lowland states enlighten the
ethnography of the Nuosu, a local group of the Yi nationality in Mao Liangshan, Yunnan Province,
China. Like the Kachin, the Nuosu were an upland-dwelling Tibeto-Burman group with a long
history of contact with state society and with adjacent ethnic groups. But one looks in vain among
the Nuosu for social structures that "modeled" the lowland Han society or polity, or for intermarriage
with Han. And wealth derived from contact with Han commodity markets, unlike similar sources of
outside wealth among the Kachin, seldom translated into enhanced political status in Nuosu society.
Changes in ethnic identity among individuals, when they occurred, were characteristically from Han
to Nuosu, rather than in the other direction. So how to account for these differences between Kachin
and Nuosu and their relations to state society? The local ecology of Nuosu livelihood, Nuosu
socio-political structure and, most importantly, the border political institutions of the Chinese state
were all sources of contrast with the Kachin case in upland Southeast Asia and significant in
configuring Nuosu relations with the lowland Han Chinese.
Who We Are Depends Upon Where We Are
F. K. Lehman, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
My paper will deal with Tai (Shan), Kachin and others: how their very perceptions of who they are
and what it means, culturally, to be who they are seems to change, often dramatically, depending
upon the local context of whom they address their identity to. I used to think, and I have even written
(in the Thai-Yunnan Project Newsletter over a year ago) that these very sinicised descriptions of
Shan customs the Chinese ethnographers give us came about because the work was done in
Putonghua and because the Tai felt the Chinese wanted to hear such stuff. Now I find that, the
farther North one goes in Yunnan (from Ruili towards Mangshih, say, the more Shan perceive
themselves that way, even when talking to me in Shan; the same people change their descriptions of
their customs as they move off towards the Burma border. Ho Ts’ui-P’ing describes similar
phenomena for the Zaiwa (Atsi) vis-à-vis Jinghpo and others. I want to relate this phenomenon to
the Cog Sci (Al) proposal that ‘belief’ is a very labile matter rather than a fixed mental state.
Session 34: Individual Papers: Politics and History in South and Southeast
Asia
The Fate of Sacrifice: Headhunting in the History of the China-Southeast Asia Frontier Area
Magnus Fiskesjo, University of Chicago
In this paper I return to the topic of the central role of sacrificial rituals of upland societies in the
borderlands between China and the Southeast Asian state societies. I present a discussion of what
might be called an "extreme" case, or (in Jonathan Friedman’s phrase), "the end of the road": a brief
account of the characteristics, history, and demise of headhunting, during the nineteenth and first half
of the twentieth century, among the Wa people of the China-Burma border area, traditionally
regarded as the most fearsome and barbarian of the region. This account builds on Chinese, British,
and other outsider’s accounts, as well as on indigenous recollections gathered during recent field
investigations in Wa areas. I will then present an analysis of historical Wa headhunting as a form of
human sacrifice, part of a system of practices developed within the context of the inter-ethnic
relations of the region and of local ecological/economic constraints, themselves conditioned by the
nature of Wa external relations. Drawing on this and on studies of other upland societies of this
region, I will discuss in what ways the pro-reform Wa sacrificial system can be regarded as a
function of those external relations, and how we might understand the history of Wa sacrifice and its
legacies in the present.
Session 69: Burma as a Southeast Asian Nation During a Half Century of Independence, Part One (Sponsored by the Burma Studies Group) (see
session 87)
Organizer and Discussant: James F. Guyot, City University of New York
Chair: Lucian W. Pye, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The political and economic development of Burma during its half century of independence is set in
the context of other Southeast Asian nations that emerged from World War II. This context permits
the comparative analysis of developments in a coherent yet significantly varied set of Asian nations,
with implications for theories of political economy. Special attention is paid to inward and outward
looking economic strategies, the shifting roles of the military classes, the interactions of political and
economic elites with each other and with other segments of the national populations, and the
institutionalization of political cultures.
In order to broaden participation, the panel has drawn for paper writers on a newer generation of
Burmese Burma scholars, individuals under the age of 40 who came to the U.S. for study after the
events of 8-8-88. The writers will not read their papers, rather the discussant will summarize and
comment on them, permitting more time for exchange among the panel members and with the
audience.
Burma’s Regional Relations: From Bandung to ASEAN
Ye Myint, Northern Illinois University
Burma’s entry into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) marks a dramatic turn in
its relations with its Southeast Asian neighbors since the country’s independence fifty years ago.
From an initial active involvement in regional and international affairs, such as the founding of the
non-aligned movement, the country turned to isolationism under General Ne Win’s rule. With the
economic reforms of the early 1970s came a marginal opening to such multilateral organizations as
the Asian Development Bank, yet distance from ASEAN was maintained.
The emergence of the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) following the
suppression of the 1988 uprising was a watershed on several dimensions, including Burma’s
blossoming relations with ASEAN. While the international community condemned the regime,
ASEAN reached out with a policy of "constructive engagement." The incentives and costs on both
sides of that engagement are analyzed.
Burma’s Economic Development During Half a Century
Naing Oo, Petroleum Industry Research Associates
While the long run economic successes of the globally integrated economies of Singapore, Malaysia,
Thailand, and Indonesia are well documented and extensively analyzed, the stumbles of Burma and
several other slow growth or retrograde economies in the region are less systematically known. The
Burma case will be examined in terms of the socio-economic factors identified by the Harvard
Institute for International Development in a report for the Asian Development Bank, with special
attention to the shifting strategies adopted by the parliamentary democracy, the Revolutionary
Council and Burma Socialist Programme Party, and the State Law and Order Restoration Council
regimes.
Socio-Economic Foundations of Military Domination in Burma
Zaw Oo, Research Group for Economic Development of Burma
Toward the end of the 20th century, the world-wide transition to democratic regimes and open
systems has brought to an end a number of regimes in which the military had played a dominant
political role despite deficiencies in economic performance, public support, or international
acceptance. A few existing military regimes such as Burma’s State Law and Order Restoration
Council now face a crisis of legitimacy and are under pressures to open up their political systems.
Since 1958, under the claim that the military were both the true defenders of Burmese traditions and
effective modernizers, the Burmese army has attempted in varying ways to monopolize the channels
of political participation while engaging both directly and indirectly with the full range of economic
tasks. This paper examines the military role in shaping and implementing economic policies and in
rent-seeking behavior as well. This examination is undertaken in the context of similar and contrasting
elements of political and economic development in Thailand and Indonesia.
Balancing economic and political goals, successive military regimes in Burma failed to secure either.
The present regime also faces a serious dilemma in strengthening the socio-economic foundations
through liberalization while seeking to secure a lasting domination in national politics. The prospects
for disengagement from political roles by the State Law and Order Restoration Council will be
addressed.
The State-Centric Analysis of Urban Bias in the Transitions to and from Socialism
Ardeth Maung, University of Wisconsin, Madison
At independence Burma began a partial transition to socialism which accelerated as the "Burmese
Way to Socialism." This course was radically reversed during the last decade, under the State Law
and Order Restoration Council. Contrary to the mainstream scholarship that emphasizes rural-led
growth policies for the former communist and socialist economies, the development processes in
Burma have been systematically biased against the countryside in both the transitions to and from
socialism. This bias is deeply embedded in a persisting political dualism which may be analyzed in
comparison to the socio-political processes at play in other Southeast Asian nations, particularly in
relation to the economic policy transformations that took place in Indonesia and Viet Nam.
Session 104: New Area Studies in the Global World:
Rethinking Modernity, Identity, Arts, and Post-Colonial
Desire in Southeast Asia (Sponsored by SEAC)
Globalism and Local Identity in Myanmar
Juliane Schober, Arizona State University
This paper focuses on the ways in which Burma-or now officially Myanmar-represents a limiting
case in the discussion of global and area focused frameworks for the study of Southeast Asia. After
decades of fierce economic, cultural, and political isolation, the ruling elite now actively seeks to
participate in international and global settings while reasserting the political boundaries of a modern
nation state that has been contested since its inception. The government's participation in global
economic communities is therefore closely linked to internal, nationalist interests and cultural
conceptions of power.
Burma's recent economic liberalization and its growing participation in global economics are
integrally tied to; (a) the role of transnational Burmese Diaspora communities that offer access to and
knowledge of global networks; and (b) a conscious, internal effort by the state to construct a modern
vision of national culture and identity. Myanmar's governing elite is engaged in the construction of
national culture to combat global cultural commodities perceived as "subversive" influences from the
"outside." The government's rhetoric about "otherness" reflects the concerns of a modern
nation-state. While fiercely anti-colonial in its rhetoric, Burmese public discourse nevertheless retains
many colonial clichés and constructs categories of modernity, such as national culture and the identity
of its citizenry in the authoritarian conceptions of a colonial, Victorian worldview.
Session 43: Individual Papers: Cultural Interaction and
Innovation in Southeast Asia
Organizer: Barbara Watson Andaya, University of Hawaii
Chair: Evelyn Blackwood, Purdue University
Laichen Sun, University of Michigan
The traditional "Chinese world order," which is characterized by Sinocentrism, has already been
challenged. However, there is no doubt that more detailed studies are still needed, and the
Sino-Burmese historical relationship is a perfect example. First of all, the two countries had a very
close relationship and relatively rich sources regarding their intercourses have survived. Secondly,
Burma, unlike Korea and Vietnam, used a different written language to communicate with China, and
this allows us to see how the Burmese perceived Sino-Burmese relationships by looking at Burmese
ecords. Set under a broader context of Sino-foreign relations, this paper examines the
Sino-Burmese relationship from the 9th through the late 19th centuries and means to render another
challenge to the "Chinese world order." Throughout the whole period under question, China
consistently regarded Burma as one of her vassals. Burma, however, considered herself as China's
equal and termed this relationship as one between "younger brother" (Burma) and "elder brother"
(China). Nonetheless, neither side realized, at least officially, this discrepancy, and each thought that
their own view was accepted by the other. This is because credentials from one side were so revised
and adapted based on a certain format that it would be totally acceptable to the ruler of the other
side. Last but not least, this paper reveals that while the basic concept of "younger brother" versus
"elder brother" had probably been almost always maintained by Burma, her attitude towards China
changed as her strength increased since the rise of the Toungoo dynasty in the mid-16th century.
Session 17: Images of the Past, Realities of the Present; The Use of History in Burma Today
Organizer : Maureen Aung-Thwin, Soros Foundation
Chair: Michael Aung-Thwin, University of Hawai'i, Manoa
Discussant: Charivat Santaputra, Permanent Mission of Thailand to the United Nations
Among a host of strong kings in Burma's history who were successful in unifying and expanding their
respective domains, 16th century Burmese King, Bayinnaung of the Taung-ngu Dynasty, has become
the unusual focus of attention in Burma today. A large statue of him has been erected, his palace at
Pegu is being excavated with extraordinary enthusiasm, themes associated with Bayinnaung have
seen exceptional space in the press, and young men choose Bayinnaung when asked who is their
favorite king. This has been in the context of a Burma that socially and culturally isolated itself for the
past three decades or more, has been stung by harsh, external criticism for its political policies more
recently, and has been conspicuously left behind by rapidly developing economies of several of its
neighbors, especially Thailand.
The papers attempt to understand the attraction of King Bayinnaung today, when there are other,
equally qualified candidates for such glorification. Why Bayinnaung and not Aniruddha or Kyanzittha
of Pagan, Thalun of the Second Ava Dynasty, Alaunghpaya, Bodawhpaya, or Mindon of the
Konbaung Dynasty? These kings did as much as, if not more than Bayinnaung to unify Burma, to
strengthen its military and administration, to enhance its religious and cultural life, and to develop its
economic resources. In other words, they were all cakravartins.
At the same time, we wish to go beyond the obvious reason that Bayinnaung was the only one to
militarily extend his kingdom into what is now Thailand and Laos, reaching Vientiane, even if briefly.
Thus, it is, first of all, more than his military prowess that is appealing to both the popular culture and
Burma's leaders today. It is also his regional and local stature, his "secular" and "modern" outlook
while accommodating religion and tradition, and his broader vision of a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic
kingdom. It is, secondly, more than the past that is at issue; it is also the present. We wish to explore
these more subtle kinds of reasons for the phenomenon.
Different perspectives on the issue will be presented, as Burmese, Thai, American, and British
scholars of Burma have been asked to participate. Yet, the common ground held by the majority of
the panelists is their discipline (early Burmese history), their sensitivity to "autonomous" history, and
their focus on indigenous sources.
The Reconstruction of King Bayinnaung of Burma in Thai Chronicles
Sunait Chutintaranond, Chulalongkorn University
This paper examines the Thai chronicles for Thai perceptions of King Bayinnaung, and shows how
Thai historiography of Bayinnaung changed, not after Bayinnaung's conquest of Thailand in the mid
16th century (as one would expect), but after the last Burmese conquest of Ayuthia in the 18th
century by Hsinphyushin. The paper suggests that whereas Bayinnaung acted as a true cakravartin
in his conquest of Ayuthia, the kings of the next Burmese dynasty who also conquered Ayuthia, did
not. Hence, it was less the conquest per se than the behavior of the conqueror, less his ethnicity than
his stature, that mattered.
Euan Bagshawe, Independent Scholar
This paper suggests that it is not Bayinnaung but Bodawhpaya that the present regime regards as
model, particularly the King's statement that the military (tatmadaw) was the backbone of society. In
this sense, this paper differs from the rest and offers a varying opinion.
Bayinnaung in Burmese Literature
U Saw Tun, Northern Illinois University
This paper shows the extent to which the King has been the subject of poetry, plays, novels, and
short stories. It describes how Bayinnaung's achievements as conqueror and administrative leader
are well remembered by posterity. From the years immediately succeeding the fall of his empire,
Burmese writers praised Bayinnaung so that the youth of the next generation would be inspired by
his example. This literary focus was evident, particularly in the British period as nationalist writers
reminded the colonized Burmese of their glorious past. Educators also perpetuated the theme of
Bayinnaung's accomplishments in their courses. Today, his name is heard in military marching songs,
names of school organizations, names of university halls, and so on.
Cakravartin Amongst Cakravartins
Michael Aung-Thwin, University of Hawai'i, Manoa
Our discussant will present "Cakravartin Amongst Cakravartins," which will provide a historical
context of the past several centuries leading to Bayinnaung's success in the 16th century, and ask the
question "why Bayinnaung?" More precisely, the paper focuses on the excavation and description of
Bayinnaung's palace and city as reported in recent Burmese newspapers and other earlier sources,
not only to demonstrate more vividly the differences between his palace and those of earlier, equally
successful monarchs, but also to suggest that the symbolism conveyed by Bayinnanung's city
expresses certain sentiments about the state found in Burma today. It will suggest how images of the
past are reinterpreted to validate concerns of the present.
Session 224: ROUND TABLE: Building Ethnic Identity in Burma
(Sponsored by the Burma Studies Group)
Organizer and Chair: Maureen Aung-Thwin, Open Society Institute
Discussants: Paul Michael Taylor, Smithsonian Institution; Christina Fink, Open Society Institute;
F. K. Lehman, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; La Raw Maran, Kachinland Projects;
Rachel Cooper, University of California, Los Angeles
Since it took power in 1962, the Burmese military has followed policies that have contributed to the
systematic erasure of local cultures and histories. Yet within this constraint, ethnic scholars and
concerned individuals have managed to promote the study of their own languages and histories
through informal means. Burmese ethnic groups inside Burma as well as in war and cease-fire zones
and in exile continue to compile and write dictionaries, grammars, textbooks and histories. Ethnic
writers under British rule often wrote primarily for their own groups, whereas many of today's ethnic
writers recognize the importance of writing for all Burmese, promoting ethnic identification while
furthering pan-ethnic understanding.
Roundtable discussants will explore various issues confronting non-Burman ethnic cultures today: (1)
The changing political context of the production of local historical accounts and language materials;
(2) the web of constraints inhibiting the writing and distribution of accounts; (3) the debate regarding
"good" versus "bad" ways to intervene in ethnic minority cultures; and (4) identify ways that all
Burmese, particularly Burmans, can engage in the process
Session 135: Direction and Priorities of Research on Southeast Asia (Sponsored by the Southeast Asia Council)
Direction and Priorities of Research in Myanmar
Myo Myint, Mandalay University
Research directions and priorities in Burma among Burma scholars have finally acknowledged the
existence of the outside world. They now speak in terms of a "global society" with "new values and
perspectives" which challenge Burma to re-examine its national and local traditions. However, this
may be what we do not want, for part of the purpose of this panel is to uncover and discover
precisely what these "local" and "national" traditions are.
An international conference is to be held in Burma (called "The Conference on Traditions in Current
Perspective"), organized by a committee of scholars from the Universities Historical Research
Centre, to determine if traditional values are "viable" or "relevant" in contemporary society, but also
to see if there are policies and programs to sustain some of these traditions. The topics target for
discussion are the following: current views of tradition, the role of tradition in contemporary society,
social and cultural traditions that are undergoing change, social and cultural traditions with values
relevant to contemporary society, and current policies and programs related to the preservation of
traditions.
The above priorities and foci sound as if current society is going through enough important changes
that on the one hand, these changes are welcomed, and on the other, the Burmese do not want to
give up their past entirely. Research direction in Burma might well, for the next few decades, address
the old but still important issue of change and continuity.
Session 64: Recent Research on Burmese Art
Organizer and Chair: Richard M. Cooler, Northern Illinois University
The art of Burma is among the least known of the artistic traditions of Southeast Asia. Researchers
are in the process of articulating those characteristics which define Burmese art and establishing how
it developed over time. The papers in this panel use different approaches to address problems of
specifying those characteristics which set Burmese art apart during different time periods from that of
India and other Southeast Asian nations. The first paper examines the Indian origins of the art of the
early Pyu civilization and proposes that they are most similar to those for the Mon Dvaravati arts of
Thailand during the seventh century. The second paper examines the advent of a unique iconographic
type particular to the Pagan Period Reign of King Kyanzittha by setting it within its cultural milieu and
in so doing establishes a major sea change in the depiction of the Buddha in Burma. The third paper
looks at the detailed representations of events in the Buddha's life as depicted on a silver bowl and
examines the form, decoration, date, and selection of scenes in determining its particular use in
Burmese Buddhism. All three of these papers contribute to establishing the parameters of aesthetic
development in the art of Burma.
Kyanzittha's Standing Image of the Buddha
Richard M. Cooler, Northern Illinois University
The conservative nature of orthodox Buddhist iconography makes the advent of a new visual type an
event of major art historical importance. This paper examines the context and meaning of one such
innovation: the standing image of Gautama Buddha with his hands in the position of dharma chakra
mudra, "turning the wheel of the law," a gesture symbolizing the First Sermon. Seated images with
hands in this position are common. Standing images occur only in Burma during the reign of King
Kyanzittha-the two which occur in the Ananda temple are colossal (over 30 feet) and are among the
most highly revered and memorable at Pagan. Smaller stone examples of this rare type appear in the
Nagayon temple as well as the earlier Kyauk ku Onhmin where such an image was stolen in 1988
and recently recovered through the efforts of the Center for Burma Studies, N.I.U. This paper
examines the origins, meaning and efficacy of the image type, the emblemata of the golden age of
Pagan.
Telling Lives: Narrative Allegory on a Burmese Silver Bowl
Robert S. Wicks, Miami University, Ohio
Anna Barbara Grey, M.D. served as a medical missionary in Burma between 1922 and 1957. At
the end of her tenure she was presented with a large silver bowl by the Burmese Baptist Church. On
the sides of the bowl are six narrative scenes. This paper explores the relationship between the
subject of the narrative found on the bowl and the life of Dr. Grey. It also examines other examples
of Burmese narrative art which possibly served as models for the bowl.
Sources, Dates, and Relationships for the Art of the Pyu
Robert L. Brown, University of California, Los Angeles
The Pyu and the Mon had founded states in Burma during the first millennium CE, before the coming
of the Burmese. Both groups were Indianized, producing art associated with Buddhism and
Hinduism. Yet, of all the early Indianized states of Mainland Southeast Asia, these two in Burma are
the least studied and the least understood. My paper addresses two issues, the possible sources and
dates for the art of the Pyu. For sources, I look at the art in India, Sri Lanka, and the Mon Dvaravati
art of neighboring Thailand. Concentrating on sculpture from Sri Ksetra (near modern Prome), the
South Asian sources appear distressingly diverse, yet the predominant relationship is, surprisingly
considering Burma's border with Northeast India, with Southern India and, particularly, with Sri
Lanka. I then argue that the Pyu sculpture does not date earlier than the seventh century. Turning to
the east, I find that the Pyu sculpture can be related to the Mon Dvaravati of the seventh century in a
number of specifically shared Southeast Asian characteristics, suggesting that Sri Ksetra and
Dvaravati were using Indian sources in a similar manner. I end by suggesting that the seventh century
is somehow a key century for Indianized art of Mainland Southeast Asia, and that it is Sri Lanka (or
Southern India?) that supplies new artistic, religious, and cultural influences.
Session 204: The Issue of Order: History, Culture, and Politics in Postcolonial Southeast Asia
The "Birth" of Military Rule in Burma
Mary P. Callahan, Naval Postgraduate School, California
The prominence of the Burmese armed forces in postwar politics is often traced to the Japanese
occupation when, for the first time in history, a national army was created in Burma. Metaphorical
references to the army's "birth" underscore the idea of continuity with the immediate past and present
the occupation as a kind of gestational period which nurtured Burma's postwar tatmadaw. This
paper begins with an empirical argument: military rule in Burma should be assessed within a much
broader context and linked to the coercive institutions and practices of the British, beginning with the
annexation of Burmese territory in the 1820s. While colonial government granted nominal authority
to civilians, the extent of the British and Indian armies' involvement in internal security circumscribed
civilian power. The prevalence of armed force in the colonial period also clearly influenced the
policies and practices of the Japanese occupation. Having reassessed the origins of Burma's military
state, this paper concludes with a more interpretive question: why does this particular myth of origin
persist? Why do official histories consistently suppress the British antecedents of military rule and
focus, instead, on the Japanese occupation? Why is the figurative midwifery of the Japanese imperial
army politically and intellectually more appealing than the real and demonstrable links to the British
institutions of colonial times?
Session 16: Southeast Asian Protest and Social Movements
Theory: A Dialogue
The Mobilization Process in the "Four Eights" Democratic Movement in Burma
Kyaw Yin Hlaing, Cornell University
As Burma's very first nation-wide social movement, the "Four Eights" (Shiq-Lay-Lone in Burmese)
democratic movement which took place in mid-1988 is a watershed in modern Burmese history. It
brought an end to the discredited-yet-seemingly-entrenched Burmese Way to Socialism and despite
the continued military rule, shook political and economic structures of Burmese society. While there
are a plethora of journalistic accounts, these important events have not been subjected to scholarly
analysis. This paper seeks to bridge this gap by focusing attention on how Burmese people were
mobilized into the "Four Eights" movement in 1988. In so doing, I will analyze how opposition
groups and foreign media, especially the British Broadcasting Corporation aad Voice of America,
served as mobilization resources which drew both political and apolitical Burmese living in both
center and periphery into the movement. This paper will argue that the particular nature of the British
Broadcasting Corporation and Voice of America (both nation-wide services based outside of
Burma) provided the movement with an organizational resource which lay beyond the control of the
state and transcended the fragmentary nature of Burmese society.